Overcoming durability and cost barriers for wearables and foldable devices

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June 4, 2026

On June 4, 2026

As market demand grows, wearable and foldable electronic devices face critical challenges in durability and cost that hinder widespread adoption. However, diverse approaches aim to overcome these bottlenecks, ultimately paving the way for more resilient, affordable and scalable wearable and foldable solutions.

Durability and cost

Wearable technology has become a significant part of daily life, offering innovative solutions through devices such as fitness trackers, smartwatches and augmented reality glasses. These devices have transformed user interaction with technology, but there are concerns about long-term reliability and durability.

Recent advances, including miniaturised sensors and flexible electronics, have enabled commercialisation, but most focus has been on sensor functionality rather than durability. However, durability and mechanical integrity — essential for long-term use — are often overlooked during development.

Flexible and stretchable wearables, especially those that conform to the skin or body, face additional durability challenges due to constant motion, body shape variations and the need for biocompatibility.Foldable devices also struggle with durability, despite their commercial success.

Cost remains a major barrier to the widespread adoption of wearable and foldable devices. Advanced models, especially those with health-monitoring or medical-grade features, often come with high price tags.

Overcoming durability barriers

Several studies have been conducted to address durability issues in wearable devices.One such study, published in npj Flexible Electronics, focused on improving the flexibility and reliability of wearable organic light emitting diodes using silbione-blended hybrimer-based encapsulation. The researchers developed a tough organic/inorganic hybrimer blended with silbione to serve as a flexible barrier layer. This silbione-blended hybrimer (SBH) demonstrated enhanced mechanical properties, such as increased elongation and tensile strength, compared to standard hybrimer. The study concluded that SBH encapsulations offered both mechanical and environmental stability, making them highly suitable for wearable OLED applications.

Two studies explored innovative approaches to enhance the durability of wearable devices. The first study developed a new triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) using a 3D printing process, which improved durability by 2.5-times compared to similar graphene-based applications. Among the developed devices were a low-energy charging zone and a smart glove capable of controlling a computer through 21 interactive channels. The TENGs were tested under tensile stress and maintained their functional properties, indicating strong mechanical resilience.

The second study focused on a smart fabric designed for wearable piezoelectric sensors. This fabric was constructed using knitted coaxial fibres, a nylon substrate, an evaporated gold layer and carbon fibres. The fabric successfully generated signals upon pressure and demonstrated excellent durability and interference-free operation after testing.

Durability barrier in foldable devices

The importance of material structures is crucial in maintaining form during folding or bending. The morphology and dimensional stability of electrode materials are critical for flexibility and mechanical performance. Even with flexible materials, the use of incompatible components can lead to device failure when folded. Therefore, proper selection of current collectors, active materials, binders, and additives is essential.

Materials are categorised into 1D, 2D and 3D types, with each contributing to flexibility and stability. Carbon fibres, carbon nanotubes, metal wires and other 1D materials entangle active elements and preserve mechanical integrity under stress. These carbon- and metal-based materials display huge potential for enhancing foldable battery performance by improving cohesion, adhesion and flexibility.

Studies demonstrate the effectiveness of 1D carbon- and metal-based materials in foldable batteries. One study used electrospinning to create a binder-free carbon fibre film with cobalt sulfide-encapsulated carbon nanotubes as a cathode in flexible aluminum-ion batteries. Another study developed nanowire-around-microfibre structures using ultrasonic spray coating, achieving high flexibility without current collectors or binders.

Additionally, 2D materials offer high conductivity, electrochemical stability and mechanical strength. Their sheet-like structure is ideal for scalable nanomanufacturing. A study has developed a solid-state foldable supercapacitor by engineering reduced graphene oxide films with micro-voids using a leavening-accompanied reduction process. This porous structure enhanced foldability and prevented cracking after 2,000 folding cycles, maintaining nearly 100% capacitance. The findings highlighted the importance of structural engineering in 2D graphene materials. 3D porous materials are also promising for accommodating deformation and improving ion absorption.

Structural design approach

A structural design approach enables system-level integration of foldable energy-storage devices by separating rigid energy parts from flexible soft parts, maintaining size, ensuring compatibility with standard manufacturing, cost-effectiveness and achieving high-performance, stable electrochemical properties.

Inspired by the human spine, researchers fabricated a spine-like battery with high energy density, combining hard energy storage components and soft flexibility parts resembling vertebrae and marrow. They stacked conventional anode, separator, cathode and polyethylene film into multi-branched strips, which were wrapped around a backbone to form thick stacks for energy density, while unwound sections provided flexibility. Cycling tests showed capacity retention of 99.4% after 20 cycles in flexed and 10 cycles in twisted states, indicating that deformation did not affect performance.

Researchers developed a zigzag-like foldable battery with high energy density and excellent foldability, composed of a conventional graphite anode, separator, lithium cobalt oxide cathode, metal current collectors and tape. The tape protected soft folding joints, occupying less than 4% of the area and minimally affecting energy density (<0.5%).

Additionally, researchers fabricated a foldable lithium-ion battery with interconnected rigid segments (anode, separator, cathode) folded in half. These rigid parts connect by soft junctions acting as flexible ligaments. The cubic units moved along the curved surface during bending, eliminating the need for extra space between rigid parts, which potentially increased the battery’s energy density.

The cost barrier

Fabrication methods critically affect the cost of wearable and foldable devices. A polyester-based epidermal electronic system, resembling a tattoo, demonstrates the potential for cost-effective, real-time monitoring of vital signs, muscle activity and brainwaves without bulky medical devices. To enhance performance and reduce costs, research focuses on flexible electronics, including advanced substrates, conductive materials and efficient production methods.

Techniques such as coating, sputtering and various printing methods — such as inkjet, gravure, and screen printing — enable precise, rapid prototyping of 3D electronics. These methods support the development of wearable devices with complex architectures.

A novel alternative involves creating electronic circuits through handwriting. Using writing instruments, users can directly draw functional electronic components on dielectric substrates. This pen-based approach enables the rapid, convenient deposition of conductive materials for biomedical, electrochemical and energy applications.

When integrated with traditional printing methods, this technique — referred to as pen-analogue writing — enhances cost-effectiveness, scalability and resolution. Hand-writing electronics offers similar benefits to printed electronics but at significantly lower costs.

4D

Recently researchers have developed pen-based 4D printing. This is where 2D prints are transformed into 3D shapes by dipping them in monomer solutions. This method supports stamping, painting and writing. Compared to other techniques, 3D printing offers advantages such as design flexibility, high resolution and cost-effectiveness.

Recent advances in materials, structural design and low-cost fabrication techniques show strong potential to overcome the cost and durability barriers. These innovations are paving the way for more resilient, affordable and scalable next-generation flexible electronics.